Chemistry Life in Daily Life Essay

Introduction: Fluorine has the distinction of being the most reactive of all the elements, with the highest electronegativity value on the periodic table. Because of this, it proved extremely difficult to isolate. Davy first identified it as an element, but was poisoned while trying unsuccessfully to decompose hydrogen fluoride. Two other chemists were also later poisoned in similar attempts, and one of them died as a result. French chemist Edmond Fremy (1814-1894) very nearly succeeded in isolating fluorine, and though he failed to do so, he inspired his student Henri Moissan (1852-1907) to continue the project. One of the problems involved in isolating this highly reactive element was the fact that it tends to â€Å"attack† any container in which it is placed: most metals, for instance, will burst into flames in the presence of fluorine. Like the others before him, Moissan set about to isolate fluorine from hydrogen fluoride by means of electrolysis—the use of an electric current to cause a chemical reaction—but in doing so, he used a platinum-iridium alloy that resisted attacks by fluorine. In 1906, he received the Nobel Prize for his work, and his technique is still used today in modified form. Properties And Uses Of Fluorine: A pale green gas of low density, fluorine can combine with all elements except some of the noble gases. Even water will burn in the presence of this highly reactive substance. Fluorine is also highly toxic, and can cause severe burns on contact, yet it also exists in harmless compounds, primarily in the mineral known as fluorspar, or calcium fluoride. The latter gives off a fluorescent light (fluorescence is the term for a type of light not accompanied by heat), and fluorine was named for the mineral that is one of its principal â€Å"hosts†. Beginning in the 1600s, hydrofluoric acid was used for etching glass, and is still used for that purpose today in the manufacture of products such as light bulbs. The oil industry uses it as a catalyst—a substance that speeds along a chemical reaction—to increase the octane number in gasoline. Fluorine is also used in a polymer commonly known as Teflon, which provides a non-stick surface for frying pans and other cooking-related products. Just as chlorine saw service in World War I, fluorine was enlisted in World War II to create a weapon far more terrifying than poison gas: the atomic bomb. Scientists working on the Manhattan Project, the United States’ effort to develop the bombs dropped on Japan in 1945, needed large quantities of the uranium-235 isotope. This they obtained in large part by diffusion of the compound uranium hexafluoride, which consists of molecules containing one uranium atom and six fluorine anions. Fluoridation Of Water: Long before World War II, health officials in the United States noticed that communities having high concentration of fluoride in their drinking water tended to suffer a much lower incidence of tooth decay. In some areas the concentration of fluoride in the water supply was high enough that it stained people’s teeth; still, at the turn of the century—an era when dental hygiene as we know it today was still in its infancy—the prevention of tooth decay was an attractive prospect. Perhaps, officials surmised, it would be possible to introduce smaller concentrations of fluoride into community drinking water, with a resulting improvement in overall dental health. After World War II, a number of municipalities around the United States ndertook the fluoridation of their water supplies, using concentrations as low as 1 ppm. Within a few years, fluoridation became a hotly debated topic, with proponents pointing to the potential health benefits and opponents arguing from the standpoint of issues not directly involved in science. It was an invasion of personal liberty, they said, for governments to force citizens to drink water which had been supplemented with a foreign substance. During the 1950s, in fact, fluoridation became associated in some circles with Communism—just another manifestation of a government trying to control its citizens. In later years, ironically, antifluoridation efforts became associated with groups on the political left rather than the right. By then, the argument no longer revolved around the issue of government power; instead the concern was for the health risks involved in introducing a substance lethal in large doses. Fluoride had meanwhile gained application in toothpastes. Colgate took the lead, introducing â€Å"stannous fluoride† in 1955. Three years later, the company launched a memorable advertising campaign with commercials in which a little girl showed her mother a â€Å"report card† from the dentist and announced â€Å"Look, Ma!  No cavities! † Within a few years, virtually all brands of toothpaste used fluoride; however, the use of fluoride in drinking water remained controversial. As late as 1993, in fact, the issue of fluoridation remained heated enough to spawn a study by the U. S. National Research Council. The council found some improvement in dental health, but not as large as had been claimed by early proponents of fluoridation. Furthermore, this improvement could be explained by reference to a number of other factors, including fluoride in toothpastes and a generally heightened awareness of dental health among the U.  S. populace. Chlorofluorocarbons : Another controversial application of fluorine is its use, along with chlorine and carbon, in chlorofluorocarbons. As noted above, CFCs have been used in refrigerants and propellants; another application is as a blowing agent for polyurethane foam. This continued for several decades, but in the 1980s, environmentalists became concerned over depletion of the ozone layer high in Earth’s atmosphere. Unlike ordinary oxygen (O 2 ), ozone or O 3 is capable of absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, which would otherwise be harmful to human life. It is believed that CFCs catalyze the conversion of ozone to oxygen, and that this may explain the â€Å"ozone hole,† which is particularly noticeable over the Antarctic in September and October. As a result, a number of countries signed an agreement in 1996 to eliminate the manufacture of halocarbons, or substances containing halogens and carbon. Manufacturers in countries that signed this agreement, known as the Montreal Protocol, have developed CFC substitutes, most notably hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), CFC-like compounds also containing hydrogen atoms. The ozone-layer question is far from settled, however. Critics argue that in fact the depletion of the ozone layer over Antarctica is a natural occurrence, which may explain why it only occurs at certain times of year. This may also explain why it happens primarily in Antarctica, far from any place where humans have been using CFCs. (Ozone depletion is far less significant in the Arctic, which is much closer to the population centers of the industrialized world. ) In any case, natural sources, such as volcano eruptions, continue to add halogen compounds to the atmosphere. Introduction: Chlorine is a highly poisonous gas, greenish-yellow in color, with a sharp smell that induces choking in humans. Yet, it can combine with other elements to form compounds safe for human consumption. Most notable among these compounds is salt, which has been used as a food preservative since at least 3000 B. C. Salt, of course, occurs in nature. By contrast, the first chlorine compound made by humans was probably hydrochloric acid, created by dissolving hydrogen chloride gas in water. The first scientist to work with hydrochloric acid was Persian physician and alchemist Rhazes (ar-Razi; c. 64-c. 935), one of the most outstanding scientific minds of the medieval period. Alchemists, who in some ways were the precursors of true chemists, believed that base metals such as iron could be turned into gold. Of course this is not possible, but alchemists in about 1200 did at least succeed in dissolving gold using a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids known as aqua regia. The first modern scientist to work with chlorine was Swedish chemist Carl W. Scheele (1742-1786), who also discovered a number of other elements and compounds, including barium, manganese, oxygen, ammonia, and glycerin. However, Scheele, who isolated it in 1774, thought that chlorine was a compound; only in 1811 did English chemist Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829) identify it as an element. Another chemist had suggested the name â€Å"halogen† for the alleged compound, but Davy suggested that it be called chlorine instead, after the Greek word chloros , which indicates a sickly yellow color. Uses Of Chlorine: The dangers involved with chlorine have made it an effective substance to use against stains, plants, animals—and even human beings. Chlorine gas is highly irritating to the mucous membranes of the nose, mouth, and lungs, and it can be detected in air at a concentration of only 3 parts per million (ppm). The concentrations of chlorine used against troops on both sides in World War I (beginning in 1915) was, of course, much higher. Thanks to the use of chlorine gas and other antipersonnel agents, one of the most chilling images to emerge from that conflict was of soldiers succumbing to poisonous gas. Yet just as it is harmful to humans, chlorine can be harmful to microbes, thus preserving human life. As early as 1801, it had been used in solutions as a disinfectant; in 1831, its use in hospitals made it effective as a weapon against a cholera epidemic that swept across Europe. Another well-known use of chlorine is as a bleaching agent. Until 1785, when chlorine was first put to use as a bleach, the only way to get stains and unwanted colors out of textiles or paper was to expose them to sunlight, not always an effective method. By contrast, chlorine, still used as a bleach today, can be highly effective—a good reason not to use regular old-fashioned bleach on anything other than white clothing. Since the 1980s, makers of bleaches have developed all-color versions to brighten and take out stains from clothing of other colors. ) Calcium hydrocholoride (CaOCl), both a bleaching powder and a disinfectant used in swimming pools, combines both the disinfectant and bleaching properties of chlorine. This and the others discussed here are just some of many, many compounds formed with the highly reactive element chlorine. Particularly notable—and controversial—are compounds involving chlorine and carbon. Chlorine And Organic Compounds: Chlorine bonds well with organic substances, or those containing carbon. In a number of instances, chlorine becomes part of an organic polymer such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride), used for making synthetic pipe. Chlorine polymers are also applied in making synthetic rubber, or neoprene. Due to its resistance to heat, oxidation, and oils, neoprene is used in a number of automobile parts. The bonding of chlorine with substances containing carbon has become increasingly controversial because of concerns over health and the environment, and in some cases chlorine-carbon compounds have been outlawed. Such was the fate of DDT, a pesticide soluble in fats and oils rather than in water. When it was discovered that DDT was carcinogenic, or cancer-causing, in humans and animals, its use in the United States was outlawed. Other, less well-known, chlorine-related insecticides have likewise been banned due to their potential for harm to human life and the environment. Among these are chlorine-containing materials once used for dry cleaning. Also notable is the role of chlorine in chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which have been used in refrigerants such as Freon, and in propellants for aerosol sprays.  CFCs tend to evaporate easily, and concerns over their effect on Earth’s atmosphere have led to the phasing out of their use. Introduction: Bromine is a foul-smelling reddish-brown liquid whose name is derived from a Greek word meaning â€Å"stink. † With a boiling point much lower than that of water—137. 84 °F (58. 8 °C)—it readily transforms into a gas. Like other halogens, its vapors are highly irritating to the eyes and throat. It is found primarily in deposits of brine, a solution of salt and water. Among the most significant brine deposits are in Israel’s Dead Sea, as well as in Arkansas and Michigan. Credit for the isolation of bromine is usually given to French chemist Antoine-Jerome Balard (1802-1876), though in fact German chemist Carl Lowig (1803-1890) actually isolated it first, in 1825. However, Balard, who published his results a year later, provided a much more detailed explanation of bromine’s properties. The first use of bromine actually predated both men by several millennia. To make their famous purple dyes, the Phoenicians used murex mollusks, which contained bromine. (Like the names of the halogens, the word â€Å"Phoenicians† is derived from Greek—in this case, a word meaning â€Å"red† or â€Å"purple,† which referred to their dyes. Today bromine is also used in dyes, and other modern uses include applications in pesticides, disinfectants, medicines, and flame retardants. At one time, a compound containing bromine was widely used by the petroleum industry as an additive for gasoline containing lead. Ethylene dibromide reacts with the lead released by gasoline to form lead bromide (PbBr 2 ), referred to as a â€Å"scavenger,† because it tends to clean the emissions of lead-containing gasoline. However, leaded gasoline was phased out during the late 1970s and early 1980s; as a result, demand for ethylene dibromide dropped considerably. Halogen Lamps: The name â€Å"halogen† is probably familiar to most people because of the term â€Å"halogen lamp. † Used for automobile headlights, spotlights, and floodlights, the halogen lamp is much more effective than ordinary incandescent light. Incandescent â€Å"heat-producing† light was first developed in the 1870s and improved during the early part of the twentieth century with the replacement of carbon by tungsten as the principal material in the filament, the area that is heated. Tungsten proved much more durable than carbon when heated, but it has a number of problems when combined with the gases in an incandescent bulb. As the light bulb continues to burn for a period of time, the tungsten filament begins to thin and will eventually break. At the same time, tungsten begins to accumulate on the surface of the bulb, dimming its light. However, by adding bromine and other halogens to the bulb’s gas filling—thus making a halogen lamp—these problems are alleviated. As tungsten evaporates from the filament, it combines with the halogen to form a gaseous compound that circulates within the bulb. Instead of depositing on the surface of the bulb, the compound remains a gas until it comes into contact with the filament and breaks down. It is then redeposited on the filament, and the halogen gas is free to combine with newly evaporated tungsten. Though a halogen bulb does eventually break down, it lasts much longer than an ordinary incandescent bulb and burns with a much brighter light. Also, because of the decreased tungsten deposits on the surface, it does not begin to dim as it nears the end of its life. Introduction: First isolated in 1811 from ashes of seaweed, iodine has a name derived from the Greek word meaning â€Å"violet-colored†Ã¢â‚¬â€a reference to the fact it forms dark purple crystals.  During the 1800s, iodine was obtained commercially from mines in Chile, but during the twentieth century wells of brine in Japan, Oklahoma, and Michigan have proven a better source. Uses And Applications: Among the best-known properties of iodine is its importance in the human diet. The thyroid gland produces a growth-regulating hormone that contains iodine, and lack of iodine can cause a goiter, a swelling around the neck. Table salt does not naturally contain iodine; however, sodium chloride sold in stores usually contains about 0. 01% sodium iodide, added by the manufacturer. Iodine was once used in the development of photography: During the early days of photographic technology, the daguerreotype process used silver plates sensitized with iodine vapors. Iodine compounds are used today in chemical analysis and in synthesis of organic compounds. Introduction: Just as fluorine has the distinction of being the most reactive, astatine is the rarest of all the elements. Long after its existence was predicted, chemists still had no luck finding it in nature, and it was only created in 1940 by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles (positively charged helium nuclei). The newly isolated element was given a Greek name meaning â€Å"unstable. † Indeed, none of astatine’s 20 known isotopes is stable, and the longest-lived has a half-life of only 8. 3 hours. This has only added to the difficulties involved in learning about this strange element, and therefore it is difficult to say what applications, if any, astatine may have. The most promising area involves the use of astatine to treat a condition known as hyperthyroidism, related to an overly active thyroid gland.

The Problem with Overcrowded Prisons

At the turn of the 21st century the problem with the United States penitentiary system could no longer be ignored. There is no need to be incarcerated to understand the suffering of both inmates and personnel managing the prison. Just imagining constricted spaces and forced interaction with an increased number of criminals and or psychologically challenged people can be counterproductive to the supposed rehabilitation purpose of jail time. But reducing the number of inmates or making bigger facilities is not going to be the simple solution for this problem. There are many factors to consider and the dilemma is building up each year. A solution has to be reached before the problem can develop into a full-blown crisis that could result in total breakdown of the system.This study takes a closer look into the problem of overcrowded prisons. This includes finding out why overcrowding has become a riddle for many officials. The research would also tackle the effects of overcrowding. Moreov er, the proponent would find out what are the challenges faced by those who tried to formulate an acceptable solution.Overcrowding the JointIn a nation where slavery is outlawed and where everyone has the opportunity to make something out of life, it is a puzzle why many still go to prison. In the Information age where a person has access to more knowledge, it is a mystery why many are none the wiser since they commit deeds that would put them behind bars.In the book about U.S. prisons, authors Clear, Cole, and Reisig found out that, â€Å"In 2003, 22 states and the federal prison system reported operating at or above capacity. The federal system was estimated to be operating at 39 percent, and overall the state systems were operating at 14 percent above capacity† (2005, p. 467).Michael Jacobson the former Commissioner of the New York City Department of Correction, the largest city jail system in the U.S. provides additional figures that helps to clearly illustrate the crisis . And he remarked, â€Å"The United States now locks up a higher percentage of its population than any country in the world. The more than 2 million people who are incarcerated today make up roughly eight times the number in 1975† (Jacobson, 2005, p. 8).Overcrowding is due to tougher laws that were ratified due to the belief that habitual offenders must be punished longer. These laws also aimed to put these types of criminals locked up for good – that they may feel the full force of the law. Joycelyn M. Pollock in her book assessing the current state of American prisons remarked why there will be an increasing number of men and women who will be under lock and key for the rest of their lives:Even as recently as 1968, 23 states had statutes that authorized life imprisonment for habitual offenders who had previously been convicted of certain specified offenses [†¦] these â€Å"new† sentencing laws have the potential to exacerbate already severely overcrowded prison conditions while simultaneously creating more problems for state and federal governments, criminal justice agencies, and prison administrators (1997, p. 62).Problem with OvercrowdingWhat is the big deal with overcrowding? Others may even dare speculate that it could add another dimension to the punishing of criminals and therefore why make their stay more comfortable?It is therefore helpful to see prison overcrowding from another perspective. And that is to understand the real purpose of incarceration. Mark Colvin in his study of the infamous New Mexico prison riot of 1980 asserted that squeezing more and more inmates like sardines into a tin can was the result of a change in philosophy.It is therefore easy to argue that riots can be expected in prisons where the needs of inmates are not met or when the prisoners feel that basic human rights are not respected due to the lack of resources. It is also not hard to imagine the stress levels experienced by shorthanded staff. When riots ensue, the safety of the prisoners and at the same time the staff responsible in managing said facility will be in extreme jeopardy.Freeman elaborates on this issue when he wrote that, â€Å"It is difficult to maintain a close watch on ‘problem’ inmates when overcrowding exists. This problem is especially acute when those problem inmates are prone to violence† (1999).Colvin argued that policy makers should be reminded that the main purpose of prison is to rehabilitate offenders and not just function as a place to lock them up. Colvin realized that this situation is did not happen overnight and he wrote, â€Å"This current crisis emerged in the 1970s when the ideological commitment to rehabilitation declined sharply, along with our nation’s optimism about alleviating poverty and a host of other social ills† (1992, p. 1).SolutionA good start would be to again revisit the original aim of prison systems. As discussed earlier policies must be alter ed to minimize the punitive intent of incarceration and rather transform regulations so that it will focus more on helping prisoners deal with the root cause of their crime.Overcrowding reduces the efficacy of whatever rehabilitative impact prison can offer. This was highlighted by Clear, Cole and Reisig when they asserted that, â€Å"Prison overcrowding directly affects the ability of correctional officials to do their work, because it decreases the proportion of offenders in programs, increases the potential for violence, and greatly strains staff morale† (2005, p. 469).With regards to dealing with the main cause of crime, the discussion will then shift to preventive measures such as elevating poverty and providing for opportunities for marginalized members of society to have access to education and other training to improve skills.Finally, a solution is right down under the noses of policymakers; but they are so preoccupied by other more sensational and controversial issue s that they miss it. An example of a simple adjustment in the system can mean hundreds of millions of dollars in savings each year and a significant reduction in the number of incarcerated delinquent. The solution calls for a serious assessment of the role of parole officers within the criminal justice system.To better understand the structure altering role of parole officers, Jacobson made a case for the consequence of neglecting the needs of said officers:Virtually no one in government can spend money like a parole officer [†¦] who has no budget to control and may work in a cramped and overcrowded office in a rundown building in a rundown part of town. He or she may have little or no access to programs or treatment for parolees and may earn much less than a correction or police officer (2005, p. 132).Looking at the insight of Jacobson it takes little to understand the domino effect of neglecting this country’s parole officers. Fortunately for those suffering in an inef ficient criminal justice system, there is an insider in the person of Jacobson who truly understand how the system works.It is a wonder that only a few realized that when a parole officer gets overworked and when their morale are dangerously low they would not have the patience to help offenders walk the more difficult path of an ex-convict. A parole officer is like a volunteer counselor who has to work from the heart, giving more than expert advice. And to walk the extra mile to help those who do not deserve help. But according to Jacobson the system is not helping them and he wrote, â€Å"†¦parole officers have no ability to compel parole agencies to spend additional fund on less expensive parole services such as drug treatment, job training programs, or additional officers to lower caseloads† (2005, p. 132).If all else fails then a suggestion is to improve infrastructure and to add cutting-edge equipment to solve the problem of increasing number of prisoners which sig nificantly affect the inmate to staff ratio. In other words technology will be used to make prisons more safe and more manageable. The positive impact as well as the drawbacks were succinctly explained by who remarked:In the USA, new generation design has even been used to reduce staff-inmate contact [†¦] Too much reliance on technology to eliminate danger and reinforce control can be perilous; in the event of equipment failure, staff can feel virtually helpless. Technology should not be an end in itself, but an aid to officers’ personal control and supervision†¦(Fairweather & McConville, 2000, p.32).Another plausible solution is the privatization of prisons. Pollock argued that with privatization comes efficiency managers and controls that will help shape up the current penal system. There are others who object to privatization citing possible obstruction to due process since privatization means control not by the government but by certain people. But in the end Lo gan was right in saying that, â€Å"†¦in no area have I found any potential problem with private prisons that is not at least matched by an identical or a closely corresponding problem among prisons that are run by the government† (as cited in Pollock, 1997, p. 382).ChallengesThose who are knowledgeable about budget deficits and the need for more money to finance other programs; plus those who are wise enough to understand the ill effects of mass incarceration are clamoring for reduction of the overcrowding in U.S. prison systems.Convincing a large part of the population will not going to be an easy task. The first challenge is changing the perception of the majority, which was heavily influenced by the media and the exposure to controversial crimes. Yet even without high profile crimes many are aware of the problem of repeat offenders and even committing crimes while still being on trial or on bail or on parole. This was elaborated by Karti Sieberg who studied the said criminal dilemma, and she remarked, â€Å"According to the report made by the Council on Crime in America, in 1990, among those accused of violent crimes, 12% were awaiting trial for earlier offenses when they allegedly committed rape, murder, assault, or robbery† (2001, p. 16).ConclusionThe solutions discuss above aims to reduce the number of people held behind bars. The proposed methods and policy changes that advocates of reducing overcrowding are increasingly leaning towards a more lenient system. Being lenient can mean different things to many people but in the limited discussion made earlier, those espousing for leniency wished not to be misunderstood.Criminals must serve time but there are many that do not need to spend more time in prison. It will be for their benefit and the society also. Moreover, a focus on preventive measures can significantly reduce this problem. But most importantly giving importance to the role of parole officers can effectively change the dire ction of overcrowded prisons.Jacobson was right when he said that, â€Å"†¦parole officers’ decisions have had the effect of fueling U.S. incarceration boom by sending many parolees back to prison†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (2005, p. 132). If policymakers can start here they could make a lot of headway.Reference ListClear, T., G. Cole, & Reisig, M. (2005). American Corrections. Belmont CA: Thomson HigherEducation.Colvin, M. (1992). The Penitentiary in Crisis: From Accomodation to Riot in New Mexico. NewYork: State University of New York Press.Fairweather, L. & McConville, S. (2000). Prison Architecture: Policy, Design, and Experience.MA: Elsevier.Freeman, R.M. (1999). Correctional Organization and Management: Public Policy Challenges,Behavior and Structure. MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.Jacobson, M. (2005). Downsizing Prisons: How to Reduce Crime and End Mass Incarceration.New York: New York University Press.Pollock, J. (1997). Prisons: Today and Tomorrow. Boston: Jones and Bartlett Pub lishers.Sieberg, K. (2001). Criminal Dilemmas: Understanding and Preventing Crime. New York:Springer.

Aristotle’s theory of the Tragic Hero Essay

â€Å"A man doesn’t become a hero until he can see the root of his own downfall† Tragic hero’s who fit under Aristotle’s depiction are known as ‘Aristotelian Tragic Hero’s’ and possess five specific characteristics; 1) A flaw or error of judgment (also known as ‘hamartia’ which is a fatal flaw leading to the downfall of a tragic hero or heroine) 2) A reversal of fortune due to the error of judgment (also known as ‘peripeteia’, which is a sudden reversal of fortune or change in circumstances) 3) The discovery or recognition that the reversal was brought about by the hero’s own actions (Referred to as ‘anagnorisis’, which is a moment in a play when a character makes a critical discovery) 4) Excessive pride (hubris) 5) The character’s fate must be greater than deserved’. In the beginning, the character must be seen as equal morally to normal people in order for the audience to identify with him/her. This identification allows the sentiment of ‘pity’ which is crucial in a tragic play. The Aristotelian tragic hero inevitably suffers a tragic death, having fallen from great heights and made an irreversible mistake. The hero must courageously accept their death with honour. Other common traits of the Aristotelian tragic hero: a) Hero must suffer more than he deserves b) Hero must be doomed from the start, but bears no responsibility for possessing his flaw. c) Hero must be noble in nature, but be imperfect so that the audience can see themselves in him. d) Hero must have discovered his fate by his own actions, not by things happening to him. e) Hero must understand his doom, as well as the fact that his fate was discovered by his own actions. f) Hero’s story should arouse fear and empathy. g) Hero must be physically or spiritually wounded by his experiences, usually resulting in his death. h) The hero must be intelligent so that he may learn from his mistakes. i) The hero must have a weakness, usually, it is pride. j) He must be faced with a very serious decision that he must face. Aristotle identifies tragedy as the most refined version of poetry dealing with lofty matters and comedy as the most refined version of poetry dealing with base matters. He traces a brief and speculative history of tragedy as it evolved from dithyrambic hymns in praise of the god Dionysus. Dithyrambs were sung by a large choir, sometimes featuring a narrator. Aeschylus invented tragedy by bringing a second actor into dialogue with the narrator. Sophocles innovated further by introducing a third actor, and gradually tragedy shifted to its contemporary dramatic form. Aristotle defines tragedy according to seven characteristics: (1) it is mimetic, (2) it is serious, (3) it tells a full story of an appropriate length, (4) it contains rhythm and harmony, (5) rhythm and harmony occur in different combinations in different parts of the tragedy, (6) it is performed rather than narrated, and (7) it arouses feelings of pity and fear and then purges these feelings through catharsis. A tragedy c onsists of six component parts, which are listed here in order from most important to least important: plot, character, thought, diction, melody, and spectacle. A well-formed plot must have a beginning, which is not a necessary consequence of any previous action; a middle, which follows logically from the beginning; and an end, which follows logically from the middle and from which no further action necessarily follows. The plot should be unified, meaning that every element of the plot should tie in to the rest of the plot, leaving no loose ends. This kind of unity allows tragedy to express universal themes powerfully, which makes it superior to history, which can only talk about particular events. Episodic plots are bad because there is no necessity to the sequence of events. The best kind of plot contains surprises, but surprises that, in retrospect, fit logically into the sequence of events. The best kinds of surprises are brought about by peripeteia, or reversal of fortune, and anagnorisis, or discovery. A good plot progresses like a knot that is tied up with increasingly greater complexity until the moment of peripeteia, at which point the knot is gradually untied until it reaches a completely unknotted conclusion. For a tragedy to arouse pity and fear, we must observe a hero who is relatively noble going from happiness to misery as a result of error on the part of the hero. Our pity and fear is aroused most when it is family members who harm one another rather than enemies or  strangers. In the best kind of plot, one character narrowly avoids killing a family member unwittingly thanks to an anagnorisis that reveals the family connection. The hero must have good qualities appropriate to his or her station and should be portrayed realistically and consistently. Since both the character of the hero and the plot must have logical consistency, Aristotle concludes that the untying of the plot must follow as a necessary consequence of the plot and not from stage artifice, like a deus ex machina (a machine used in some plays, in which an actor playing one of the gods was lowered onto the stage at the end). Aristotle discusses thought and diction and then moves on to address epic poetry. Whereas tragedy consists of actions presented in a dramatic form, epic poetry consists of verse presented in a narrative form. Tragedy and epic poetry have many common qualities, most notably the unity of plot and similar subject matter. However, epic poetry can be longer than tragedy, and because it is not performed, it can deal with more fantastic action with a much wider scope. By contrast, tragedy can be more focused and takes advantage of the devices of music and spectacle. Epic poetry and tragedy are also written in different meters. After defending poetry against charges that it deals with improbable or impossible events, Aristotle concludes by weighing tragedy against epic poetry and determining that tragedy is on the whole superior. Aristotle takes a scientific approach to poetry, which bears as many disadvantages as advantages. He studies poetry as he would a natural phenomenon, observing and analyzing first, and only afterward making tentative hypotheses and recommendation s. The scientific approach works best at identifying the objective, lawlike behavior that underlies the phenomena being observed. To this end, Aristotle draws some important general conclusions about the nature of poetry and how it achieves its effects. However, in assuming that there are objective laws underlying poetry, Aristotle fails to appreciate the ways in which art often progresses precisely by overturning the assumed laws of a previous generation. If every play were written in strict accordance with a given set of laws for a long enough time, a revolutionary playwright would be able to achieve powerful effects by consciously violating these laws. In point of fact, Euripides, the last of the three great tragic poets of Ancient Greece, wrote many plays that violated the logical and structured principles of  Aristotle’s Poetics in a conscious effort to depict a world that he saw as neither logical nor structured. Aristotle himself gives mixed reviews to Euripides’ troubling plays, but they are still performed two and a half millennia after they were written. Aristotle’s concept of mimesis helps him to explain what is distinctive about our experience of art. Poetry is mimetic, meaning that it invites us to imagine its subject matter as real while acknowledging that it is in fact fictional. When Aristotle contrasts poetry with philosophy, his point is not so much that poetry is mimetic because it portrays what is real while philosophy is nonmimetic because it portrays only ideas. Rather, the point is that the ideas discussed in philosophical texts are as real as any ideas ever are. When we see an actor playing Oedipus, this actor is clearly a substitute through which we can imagine what a real Oedipus might be like. When we read Aristotle’s ideas on art, we are in direct contact with the ideas, and there is nothing more real to imagine. Art presents reality at one level of remove, allowing us a certain detachment. We do not call the police when we see Hamlet kill Polonius because we know that we are not seeing a real event but only two actors imitating real-world possibilities. Because we are conscious of the mimesis involved in art, we are detached enough that we can reflect on what we are experiencing and so learn from it. Witnessing a murder in real life is emotionally scarring. Witnessing a murder on stage gives us a chance to reflect on the nature and causes of human violence so that we can lead a more reflective and sensitive life. Aristotle identifies catharsis as the distinctive experience of art, though it is not clear whether he means that catharsis is the purpose of art or simply an effect. The Greek word katharsis originally means purging or purification and refers also to the induction of vomiting by a doctor to rid the body of impurities. Aristotle uses the term metaphorically to refer to the release of the emotions of pity and fear built up in a dramatic performance. Because dramatic performances end, whereas life goes on, we can let go of the tension that builds during a dramatic performance in a way that we often cannot let go of the tension that builds up over the course of our lives. Because we can let go of it, the emotional intensity of art deepens us, whereas emotional intensity in life often just hardens us. However, if this process of catharsis that allows us to experience powerful emotions and then  let them go is the ultimate purpose of art, then art becomes the equivalent of therapy. If we define catharsis as the purpose of art, we have failed to define art in a way that explains why it is still necessary in an era of psychiatry. A more generous reading of Aristotle might interpret catharsis as a means to a less easily defined end, which involves a deeper capacity for feeling and compassion, a deeper awareness of what our humanity consists in. Aristotle insists on the primacy of plot because the plot is ultimately what we can learn from in a piece of art. The word we translate as â€Å"plot† is the Greek wordmuthos, which is the root for myth. Muthos is a more general term than plot, as it can apply to any art form, including music or sculpture. The muthos of a piece of art is its general structure and organization, the form according to which the themes and ideas in the piece of art make themselves apparent. The plot of a story, as the term is used in the Poetics, is not the sequence of events so much as the logical relationships that exist between events. For Aristotle, the tighter the logical relationships between events, the better the plot. Oedipus Rex is a powerful tragedy precisely because we can see the logical inevitability with which the events in the story fall together. The logical relationships between events in a story help us to perceive logical relationships between the events in our own lives. In essence, tragedy shows us patterns in human experience that we can then use to make sense of our own experience.

American Dream Theme Essay

The portrayal of the American Dream in literature has evolved as the United States has developed and prospered. In the beginning, the initial settlers in the Americas were searching for simple things, such as new opportunities and freedom of religion. As the country grew more populous, competition for success was heightened. Many people have different ideas on what the American Dream means to them. Over the years, American authors have used the theme of the American Dream to share their perspectives on society. Starting with Mark Twain’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, the depiction of this theme has evolved with society throughout the years. This novel was set in the years that slavery was prevalent, which made the relationship between a young boy and a runaway slave very difficult. They crave to have no restraints and constrictions and strive to escape the controlling society that they live in. In his book, Twain’s idea of the American Dream is depicted as â€Å"a celebration of freedom, not only from physical structure and rules, but from the prejudices of  Southern society in the age of slavery† (â€Å"The American Dream† 2). The two boys struggle to reach freedom and happiness together throughout the entire book. The main character in The Great Gatsby also struggles for happiness throughout his life in Scott Fitzgerald’s novel. After losing his true love and BURTON 2 discovering that she has been married to another man, he uses his riches and â€Å"high society† lifestyle to win her back over. He strives for money and fortune, but finds no true happiness in his successes. One article had a wonderful  explanation of the American dream presented in this novel: â€Å"Through the character of Gatsby, Fitzgerald eventually shows that, while the rags-to-riches American Dream seems fantastic and wonderful, it is in reality shallow, as well as devoid of true joy and love† (â€Å"The American Dream† 3). However, not all quests for success can end favorably for everyone. This fact is depicted well in Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman. After a lifetime of failures, Willy Loman learns the hard way that success in society is not  everything in life; family and love for one another is what is most important. He seems to focus more on being well liked by the buyers and other people that he visits instead of actually selling his products. Near the end, he voices his frustration frequently about how there is no relationship and personality in the selling business anymore. In his article, Bradford states that Willy â€Å"believes that personality, not hard work and innovation, is the key to success† (Bradford 3). Miller proves this to be false when, in the play, Willy attempts to use his charisma  to get a raise from his boss, but the conversation eventually ends in him being fired altogether. He goes on to blame numerous other reasons for his being let go from the company, but never recognizes his own fault. The American Dream started off as a simple desire for freedom to express oneself and live equally with each other. This was expressed in the 1884 novel, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. These hopes and dreams turned more BURTON 3 materialistic by the 1920’s when Gatsby believed that he could somehow win over his one true love with his fame and riches. He worked hard to earn his success, but without friends and loved ones to share your life with, he realized that success does not bring true happiness. This theme changed once again, though, when the Loman family was introduced in 1949. In Arthur Miller’s play, Willy Loman acted as if he shouldn’t have to work for success and riches. He seemed to believe that everything should be handed to him, instead of earned. The American Dream theme has never failed to keep up with progress in American society. Many authors and playwrights incorporated this theme into  their works in order to make the stories relatable to readers at their times. While peoples’ aspirations started out more moral, people began to become greedy in their desires. This led to their dreams becoming more complicated. The definition of success and means of achieving happiness have changed as American culture has transformed. BURTON 4 Works Cited â€Å"The American Dream in Literature. † Examiner. com. Clarity Digital Group LCC, 15 Sept. 2011. Web. 09 Sept. 2013. Bradford, Wade. â€Å"The American Dream in â€Å"Death of a Salesman†Ã¢â‚¬  About. com Plays / Drama. N. p. , 2013. Web. 09 Sept. 2013.

Global Marketing Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 5

Global Marketing Strategy - Essay Example according to Oviatt & McDougall (1997) has also become easier through advancement in telecommunications, video conferencing as well as satellite technology. The location and logistical system of the country, its wide strategy of innovation and the proper organisation between the private and public sector creates a very friendly environment for companies that intend to operate in the country. In addition, good culture on creativity, coordination as well as reliability, exceptional economic conditions and a leading technology sector in terms of agro-food, the country is capable of providing the most important incentives for innovation and a choice for the business (Van der Meer 2007). Netherlands is suitable for the business since the country has a developed, prosperous and outward looking financial system that has recognition for having very stable industrial relations, modest rate of inflation and satisfactory equitable distribution of income in the country. Historically, government intervention in business activities has been very low. In addition, the workforce in the country is well educated, trained, flexible and highly motivated to produce the highest level of profitability in business operations. Above all, language barrier is not a serious problem since the country is one among the main multilingual in the globe (Arndt & Kierzkowski 2001). Having more than ten percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) and more than twenty percent of the industrial exports, whole food is among the most profitable sectors in the country. The government recognises the whole food as one of the most important sectors in the country. The sector is one among those, which gets a priority from all private as well as public stakeholders with a combined strategic planning that aims at achieving social, sustainable as well as economic targets. The whole food chain, right from the seeds to the consumer, has an extremely strong appearance in the country (Tansey & Rajotte 2008). In

Essay for Univerisity Masters Application on Myself and why i want to

For Univerisity Masters Application on Myself and why i want to apply - Essay Example In taking a Bachelor of Arts in Global Management, my eyes have been opened to the world of possibilities that are really out there. Learning from my instructors and fellow classmates has been the most enjoyable experience of my time so far because I get the opportunity to learn each day, which is something I think that only a rare few of us ever get to take advantage of. My time in education so far has instilled a strong work ethic that was not previously as strong before. The results that I have achieved pay testament to a new change of mindset, and it is something that I will look to carry on well into the future now that I have witnessed firsthand the benefits of implementing such a change. Although university has been great from an analytical point of view, it has been the opportunity to gain real world experience that has done wonders for my knowledge and confidence. I secured my first notable employment in 2011 at Siza Holdings, where I learnt the various aspects of office administration. At first I felt like I was thrown into the deep end, but in hindsight this was actually a positive step for me because it forced me to grow up very fast. I quickly learnt how to deal with mail and filing and also to respond to emails. The two years that I worked at Siza gave me a solid working base from which I have added to further. Over the summers of 2012 and 2013, I was fortunate enough to diversify my working experience with Club Interiors and interning with Royal Spades. These opportunities showed me a different side of the management field. Although I was only there for a short time, Club Interiors was invaluable for me both personally and professionally because I was working as a personal assistant to a junior designer there. While I was not actively involved in discussions with clients, I was able to observe and ask many questions of the PA who I was working alongside. The following year at Royal Spades was a great time for

Antz Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Antz - Movie Review Example In addition, there is a hierarchy of different offices in the movie as well as in the general society. Moreover, the movie ANTZ depicts the rights of individuals in the community as well as the role of democracy in the commonwealth. On the other hand, the works of Plato also elaborates on the ability of individuals to make their choices regarding their leadership. For instance, Plato puts it that the community is primarily formed to for mutual benefits to satisfy especially certain common needs. Plato goes ahead to explain what makes up the community. For instance, he describes the community to be an economic structure maintained by the working class and the merchants. Moreover, he explains that the military and leadership continue the guardians guarantee security needs. However, this entire are indicated the movie ANTZ in that; the film gives a clear indication of direction and author as well as a hierarchy of offices. The tension is viewed in the society in that, it majority who makes up the community in that; the rule of democracy governs them. On the other hand, Aristotle has the same view when it comes to his opinion about the community. That is, Aristotle has the same political point of view just in Movie ANTZ and Plato’s point of view. In Aristotle works, he agrees that the community is created with an objective towards some kind. That is, the leadership of the people needs to bear the needs of the population and make them be their responsibility. However, a tension exists in an individual as well the community in both works of Plato and Aristotle in that; they both have a clear definition on how justice should be implemented. In addition, they all explain the merits of having the rule of democracy in place. That is, the state of the majority should be followed. However, there are various characters in the play as well as in the works of Plato and